You haven't gotten any response here because it depends on so many factors that its impossible to answer in a simple paragraph...
for the time varying aspect, just take a graph at noon on solctice and apply sinus/cosine laws to the amplitude to have the graphs in respect to the time.
you will never find raw data, as the incomming radiation depends on the clouds. Same goes for the outgoing. So you'll have to apply a mean cloud cover etc.
If you did university physics (or related fields), you could read that book, it would have all the answers:
https://www.amazon.ca/First-Course-Atmospheric-Radiation/dp/0972903313
If you didn't do university physics, i'm afraid you might never get your answers.
I'd far rather you cherish an introductory text in radiative transfer. Most of your questions could be answered straight away if you started from scratch instead of trying to warp your misconceptions into accurately explaining phenomena.